Excavated. Accumulated. Exhibited.

Introductory Texts:

"Four Expeditions to Nippur"

Between 1888 and 1900, the Penn carried out four expeditions to Nippur, an important religious centre in ancient times. The excavations uncovered a wide range of objects, including administrative and legal documents, school and literary texts, as well as building inscriptions.

This variety of finds provides insights into religious, economic, and everyday life in ancient Mesopotamia, making Nippur an important archaeological site for studies of ancient Mesopotamian societies.

"The First Expedition: A Disaster"

The research team had very little excavation experience. They disagreed about how the work should be done and were disappointed by the excavation results.

Conflicts with and among the local population were common. When a fire eventually destroyed the camp, the researchers left Nippur in haste.

Initially, none of the participants wanted to continue excavations at Nippur. Only the photographer John Haynes agreed to remain involved. During the second and third expeditions, he uncovered finds whose importance eventually led to a fourth expedition, which was much better organised.

"From Searching to Revealing"

The earliest excavations did not follow a fixed plan. Deep test trenches were cut into the mound to reach walls and archaeological layers as quickly as possible.

Large amounts of soil were removed, sometimes damaging structures such as walls and buildings. Archaeologists focused on valuable individual finds rather than their position within the wider layout of the city.

Excavations were carried out quickly, with little attention given to documentation. As a result, it became much more difficult to understand the structures themselves and how they developed over time.

"From Revealing to Understanding"

In later campaigns, excavations became more systematic, with architects involved in the process. Excavation trenches were aligned more closely with walls and archaeological layers, while uncovered structures were measured and recorded.

Soil and archaeological layers were exposed more carefully and understood as a sequence developing over time. This made it possible to analyse the relationship between different building phases and structures.

Excavations shifted from the rapid collection of individual finds to a systematic investigation of the city and its development.

Object Labels:

"Tools Used in Archaeological Excavations"

In addition to basic excavation tools, surveying and documentation were essential parts of archaeological work.

Pegs and string were used to mark out areas and transfer measurements, while structures and features were systematically recorded in notebooks.

However, this form of written documentation developed only gradually over time.

"Film Footage from Nippur" (1951/52)

The film clips show local workers during an excavation campaign led by the Penn in the early 1950s. Around 1900, their daily work during excavations was very similar.

Their tasks mainly included removing layers of soil and uncovering finds using simple tools.

During the early excavation campaigns, up to 300 paid workers were employed by Penn research teams. Most were recruited through local contacts. Many workers also brought their wives and children to the camp

"Buying a House 4,500 Years Ago"

This cuneiform tablet from Fara (around 2550 BCE) is one of the earliest known records of a private property transaction. It documents the sale of a house measuring around 53 square metres for 45 minas of copper (approximately 22 kilograms today).

In addition, the seller received a “gift” of 25 minas of copper, a garment, and food supplies. The surveyor was paid one mina of copper, ten loaves of bread, ten cakes, and soup.

The transaction was confirmed by witnesses, including a blacksmith and a salt collector.

"Mathematical Tablet from Nippur" (2002–1595 BCE)

This clay tablet provides direct insight into the “Edubba”, the Old Babylonian scribal school. It records a mathematical exercise: calculating the square of the number 290.

The calculations were performed using the sexagesimal system, which is based on the number 60. This is a principle still familiar today from timekeeping (60 minutes = 1 hour). In this example, the number 290 is represented as 4 × 60 + 50.

The object demonstrates the importance of mathematics and the daily school life of future scribes almost 4,000 years ago.

"Old Babylonian Votive Plaque from Nippur"

On the right side of the terracotta plaque, a goddess can be seen. She can be identified by her horned crown, a symbol of divinity in ancient Mesopotamia.

With her right hand, she holds the left arm of a man wearing a Sumerian cloak, who raises his right hand to his mouth in a gesture of worship.

Reliefs like this were placed in temple complexes as votive offerings. They formed part of religious rituals through which people hoped to receive divine support.

"Prism Inscribed with a Lexical List"

This clay prism served both as a teaching aid and a reference tool in Old Babylonian scribal schools. It was used to teach reading, writing, and the meaning of cuneiform signs.

The entries pair Sumerian words with their Akkadian equivalents, showing how languages and writing systems were learned and transmitted.

The prism also reveals how knowledge was organised in ancient Mesopotamia. Rather than being arranged alphabetically, terms were grouped by subject, reflecting a different approach to classification from the one familiar today.

"Inscribed Foundation Nail" (around 2140 BC)

Set into temple walls and foundations, this clay nail served as a permanent building inscription.

Similar inscriptions were placed above doors or on gables in Europe. However, these remained visible.

The inscription names the ruler and commemorates the construction or dedication of the temple. In this way, the temple remained permanently associated with its patron.

"Loan Contract"

This clay tablet records a loan agreement from the Ur III period in the 21st century BCE, a time of highly organised administration in Mesopotamia.

The text records the loan of barley, the interest due, and its repayment after a fixed period. Such documents regulated economic transactions and made agreements legally verifiable.

It names the parties involved, quantities, dates, and witnesses, reflecting a society in which writing formed the basis of administration, law, and trade.

"Clay Envelope of a Loan Contract"

This clay envelope enclosed the tablet itself and repeated its contents. Once inscribed, it was sealed to protect the text inside from alteration.

Opening the envelope would have destroyed it, making any tampering immediately visible. It therefore served both as a safeguard and as proof of the agreement’s authenticity.

The tablet and its envelope together illustrate the use of writing as a binding and protected medium.

About this translation:
This English version was created by students as part of the project. As a small-scale initiative, the translations were produced in-house and have not undergone professional language editing. We appreciate your understanding.